BIOLOGÍA - GEOLOGÍA . COM

1º ESO

3º ESO

4º ESO

2º Bachillerato

Realidad Aumentada

Blog

These are the subjects of Biology and Geology studied in courses 1st, 3rd, and 4th Secondary School in Spain. If your language is not Spanish, you can translate the page with google translator to find the right above these lines.

1 ESO (12-13 years)

• 1. The Earth in the Universe

• 1.1. Origin of the universe

• 1.2. Geocentrism and heliocentrism

• 1.3. Distances in the universe

• 1.4. Composition of the universe

• 1.5. The Solar System and its components

• 1.5.1. Sun

• 1.5.2. The planets

• 1.5.2.1. Inner planets

• 1.5.2.2. Outer planets

• 1.5.3. Moon

  • 1.5.3.1. Moon phases

• 1.6. Characteristics of the Earth

• 1.7. Earth movements

• 1.7.1. Days and nights

• 1.7.2. Seasons of the year

• 1.7.3. The tides

• 1.7.4. Eclipses

• 1.7.5. Precession and nutation

• 1.8. Bibliography

• 2. The geosphere

• 2.1. Characteristics of the geosphere

• 2.2. Structure and composition of the crust

• 2.3. Structure and composition of the mantle

• 2.4. Structure and composition of the Earth´s core

• 2.5. Bibliography

• 3. Minerals and rocks

  • 3.1. The minerals

    • 3.1.1. What is a mineral?

    • 3.1.2. Properties of minerals

      • 3.1.2.1. Physical properties of minerals

      • 3.1.2.2. Optical properties of minerals

      • 3.1.2.3. Mechanical properties of minerals

      • 3.1.2.4. Chemical properties of minerals

    • 3.1.3. Classification of minerals

    • 3.1.4. Utilities of minerals

  • 3.2. The rocks

  • 3.2.1. Properties of rocks

  • 3.2.2. Types of rocks

    • 3.2.2.1. Sedimentary rocks

    • 3.2.2.2. Metamorphic rocks

    • 3.2.2.3. Magmatic rocks

  • 3.2.3. The rock cycle

  • 3.2.4. Rocks utilities

  • 3.3. Extraction of minerals and rocks

  • 3.4. Bibliography

• 4. The atmosphere

• 4.1. The air

• 4.2. Origin of the atmosphere

• 4.3. Chemical composition of the atmosphere

• 4.4. Structure of the atmosphere

• 4.5. Atmospheric pollution

• 4.6. Greenhouse effect

• 4.7. Importance of the atmosphere for living things

• 4.8. Bibliography

• 5. The hydrosphere

  • 5.1. Origin of water on Earth

  • 5.2. Water states

  • 5.3. Water properties

  • 5.4. Distribution of water on Earth

  • 5.5. The water cycle

  • 5.6. Water consumption

  • 5.7. Pollution of freshwater and saltwater

  • 5.8. Sustainable water management

  • 5.9. Bibliography

• 6. Life on Earth

  • 6.1. The biosphere

  • 6.2. Inert, living, organic and inorganic matter

  • 6.3. Characteristics that made Earth a habitable planet

  • 6.4. The cell

    • 6.4.1. Prokaryotic cell

    • 6.4.2. Eukaryotic cell

  • 6.5. Vital functions of living beings

    • 6.5.1. Nutrition

    • 6.5.2. Relationship

    • 6.5.3. Reproduction

      • 6.5.3.1. Asexual reproduction

      • 6.5.3.2. Sexual reproduction

  • 6.6. Bibliography

• 7. Classification of living things

  • 7.1. Classification systems of living beings

  • 7.2. Species concept

  • 7.3. Kingdoms of living beings

    • 7.3.1. Moneras

    • 7.3.2. Protoctists

    • 7.3.3. Fungi

    • 7.3.4. Metazoans

    • 7.3.5. Metaphytes

  • 7.4. Bibliography

• 8. Invertebrates

  • 8.1. General characteristics of invertebrates

  • 8.2. Phylum Porifera or Spongiaria

  • 8.3. Phylum Cnidaria or Coelenterates

  • 8.4. Phylum Annelida

  • 8.5. Phyllum Mollusks

  • 8.6. Phyllum Echinoderms

  • 8.7. Phyllum Arthropods

  • 8.8. Phylum Flatworms

  • 8.9. Phylum Nematodes

  • 8.10. Bibliography

• 9. Vertebrates

  • 9.1. General characteristics of vertebrates

  • 9.2. Fish

  • 9.3. Tetrapods

    • 9.3.1. Amphibians

    • 9.3.2. Reptiles

    • 9.3.3. Birds

      • 9.3.3.1. Bird beaks

      • 9.3.3.2. Adaptations to flight of birds

    • 9.3.4. Mammals

  • 9.4. Adaptations of vertebrates to the terrestrial environment

  • 9.5. Bibliography

• 10. Plants

  • 10.1. Plant characteristics

  • 10.2. Bryophytes: Mosses

  • 10.3. Pteridophyites: Ferns

  • 10.4. Spermatophytes

    • 10.4.1. Gymnosperms

    • 10.4.2. Angiosperms

  • 10.5. Vital functions of plants

    • 10.5.1. Plant nutrition

    • 10.5.2. Relationship of plants

    • 10.5.3. Plant reproduction. Flowers

      • 10.5.3.1. Asexual reproduction in plants

      • 10.5.3.2. Sexual reproduction in plants

      • 10.5.3.3. Alternate reproduction in plants

  • 10.6. Bibliography

• 11. Ecosystems

  • 11.1. Ecosystem components

    • 11.1.1. Biotope

    • 11.1.2. Biocenosis

  • 11.2. Types of ecosystems

    • 11.2.1. Aquatic ecosystems

    • 11.2.2. Terrestrial ecosystems

  • 11.3. Balance in ecosystems

    • 11.3.1. Energy and matter in ecosystems

  • 11.4. Actions that promote environmental conservation

  • 11.5. The soil as an ecosystem

  • 11.6. Bibliography

• 0. The scientific methodology

  • 0.1. Characteristics of the scientific method

  • 0.2. Experimentation in Biology and Geology: obtaining and selecting information

• • 3rd ESO (14-15 years)

• 01. General organization of the human body

  • 1.1. Levels of organization of the human body

  • 1.2. The cell

    • 1.2.1. The prokaryotic cell

    • 1.2.2. The eukaryotic cell

      • 1.2.2.1. The eukariotic animal cell

      • 1.2.2.2. The eukariotic plant cell

  • 1.3. Tissues

  • 1.4. Organs, systems and apparatus

  • 1.5. Bibliography and student work

• 02. Food and health

  • 2.1. Food and nutrition

  • 2.2. Nutrients

    • 2.2.1. Types of nutrients

    • 2.2.2. The energy from nutrients

  • 2.3. The food

  • 2.4. Diets

  • 2.5. Food consumption

    • 2.5.1. Labelled

    • 2.5.2. How to buy and cook

  • 2.6. Food preservation and hygiene

  • 2.7. Food production

    • 2.7.1. Intensive agriculture

    • 2.7.2. Intensive livestock

    • 2.7.3. Aquaculture

    • 2.7.4. Transgenic foods

    • 2.7.5. Organic food

  • 2.8. Food-related diseases

  • 2.9. Bibliography and student work

• 03. The digestive system and digestion

  • 3.1. The nutrition function

  • 3.2. Digestive system

    • 3.2.1. Ingestion

      3.2.1.1. Chewing

      3.2.1.2. Insalivation

      3.2.1.3. Swallowing

    • 3.2.2. Digestion

    • 3.2.3. Absorption

    • 3.2.4. Expulsion or egestion

  • 3.3. Digestive diseases

  3.3.1. Diseases in the mouth

  3.3.2. Diseases in the stomach

  3.3.3. Diseases in the intestine

  3.3.4. Liver disease

  • 3.4. Healthy Habits related to the digestive system

  • 3.5. Bibliography and student work

• 04. The respiratory system and breathing

  • 4.1. The airways and lungs

    • 4.1.1. The airways

    • 4.1.2. Lungs

    • 4.1.3. Gaseous exchange

  • 4.2. Respiratory activity

  • 4.3. Respiratory diseases

  • 4.4. Healthy habits related to the respiratory system

  • 4.5. Bibliography and student work

• 05. The circulatory system and circulation

  • 5.1. General organization of the circulatory system

  • 5.2. The blood

  • 5.3. The heart

  • 5.4. Heart movements

  • 5.5. Blood vessels

  • 5.6. Blood pressure

  • 5.7. The blood circulation

  • 5.8. Lymph and lymphatic system

  • 5.9. Diseases of the circulatory system

    • 5.9.1. Diseases or the blood vessels.

    • 5.9.2. Heart disease.

    • 5.9.3. Blood disease.

  • 5.10. Healthy habits for the circulatory system

• 5.11. Bibliography and student work

• 06. The excretory system and excretion

• 6.1. Excretion

• 6.2. The urinary system

  • 6.2.1. Kidneys

  • 6.2.2. Urine formation

  • 6.2.3. Urinary tract

• 6.3. Kidney disease

• 6.4.Healthy habits for the excretory system

• 6.5. Bibliography and student work

• 07. The nervous system

  • 7.1. The relation function and the nervous system

  • 7.2. The cells of the nervous system

    • 7.2.1. Neuron

    • 7.2.2. Glia

  • 7.3. The nerve impulse

  • 7.4. Organization of the nervous system

    • 7.4.1. The Central Nervous System

      • 7.4.1.1. Encephalon

      • 7.4.1.2. Spinal cord

    • 7.4.2. The Peripheral Nervous System

      • 7.4.2.1. Somatic Nervous System

      • 7.4.2.2. Autonomic nervous system

  • 7.5. Nervous acts

  • 7.6. Nervous system diseases

    • 7.6.1. Brain injuries

    • 7.6.2. Spinal cord injuries

    • 7.6.3. Neuropsychological diseases

    • 7.6.4. Pathologies related to lifestyle

  • 7.7. Healthy habits and mental health

  • 7.8. Drug addiction

    • 7.8.1. Common characteristics of drugs

    • 7.8.2. Drug classification

  • 7.9. Bibliography and student work

• 08. The endocrine system

  • 8.1. The types of responses

  • 8.2. The endocrine system

    • 8.2.1. Endocrine glands

    • 8.2.2. Hormonal control

  • 8.3. Endocrine Diseases

  • 8.4. Bibliography and student work

• 09. Organ recipients. The sense organs.

  • 9.1. The perception: sensory receptors

    • 9.1.1. The touch and pain

    • 9.1.2. The sense of smell

    • 9.1.3. Taste

    • 9.1.4. The eye and vision

    • 9.1.5. The ear, hearing and balance

  • 9.2. Healthy Habits for organs

  • 9.3. Bibliography and student work

• 10. Organs effectors

  • 10.1. The skeleton

    • 10.1.1. The bones

    10.1.1.1. Bones of the human body

  • 10.1.2. Joints

  • 10.2. Musculature

  10.2.1. Muscles or the human body

  • 10.3. Healthy habits of the locomotor system

  • 10.4. Musculoskeletal disorders

  • 10.5. Bibliography and student work

• 11. Sexuality and human reproduction

  • 11.1. Human Reproduction

    • 11.1.1. The male reproductive system

    • 11.1.2. Spermatozoon

    • 11.1.3. The female reproductive system

    • 11.1.4. The ovule

    • 11.1.5. The menstrual cycle

    • 11.1.6. Fertilization, pregnancy and childbirth

      • 11.1.6.1. Fertilization

      • 11.1.6.2. Pregnancy

      • 11.1.6.3. Birth

  • 11.2. Natality control

    • 11.2.1. Contraceptive methods

    • 11.2.2. Reproduction techniques

      • 11.2.2.1. Exploratory techniques

      • 11.2.2.2. Techniques help in childbirth

      • 11.2.2.3. Assisted reproductive techniques

  • 11.3. Adolescence and sexuality

  • 11.4. Main sexually transmitted diseases and prevention

  • 11.5. Prevention and sexual health

  • 11.6. Bibliography and student work

• 12. The health and disease

  • 12.1. What is health?

    • 12.1.1. Health indicators

    • 12.1.2. Health determinants

  • 12.2. The disease and its types

  • 12.3. Infectious diseases

    • 12.3.1. Types of infectious diseases

    • 12.3.2. Immunity and immune system

    • 12.3.3. Prevention and cure of infectious diseases

  • 12.4. Non-infectious diseases

  • 12.5. First aid

  • 12.6. Transplants and cell donation, blood and organs

  • 12.7. Bibliography and student work

• 13. Ecosystems

  • 13.1. Ecosystem components

  • 13.2. Types of ecosystems

  • 13.3. Factors influencing the ecosystem

  • 13.4. Balance in ecosystems

    13.5. The soil as an ecosystem

  • 13.6. Bibliography and student work

• 14. The external geological activity of the Earth

  • 14.1. Solar energy on Earth

  • 14.2. External geological processes

    • 14.2.1. Weathering

    • 14.2.2. Erosion, transport and sedimentation

  • 14.3. Factors that condition the modeling of the relief

  • 14.4. Forms or relief modeling

    • 14.4.1. Wild or stream waters

    • 14. 4. 2. Torrential modeling

    • 14.4.3. River modeling

    • 14.4.4. Karst modeling. Groundwater

    • 14.4.5. Littoral modeling

    • 14.4.6. Glacier modeling

    • 14.4.7. Wind or desert modeling

  • 14.5. Geological action of living beings

  • 14.6. Geological action of the human being

  • 14.7. Bibliography and student work

• 15. The internal geological activity of the Earth

  • 15.1. The internal energy of the Earth

  • 15.2. Volcanoes

    • 15.2.1. Types of volcanoes

    • 15.2.2. Volcanic risk

  • 15.3. Earthquakes

    • 15.3.1. Seismic risk

  • 15.4. Bibliography and student work

 

4th of ESO (15-16 years)

• 1. The cell

  • 1.1. Levels of organization of living things

  • 1.2. Cell theory

  • 1.3. The cell

    • 1.3.1. Prokaryotic cell

    • 1.3.2. Eukaryotic cell

      • 1.3.2.1. Common organelles

      • 1.3.2.2. Organelles of the animal cell

      • 1.3.2.3. Plant cell organelles

  • 1.4. Cell nucleus

  • 1.5. Vital functions of cells

  • 1.6. Cellular cycle

    • 1.6.1. Mitosis

    1.6.1.1. Cytokinesis

    • 1.6.2. Meiosis

    • 1.6.2.1. Meiosis I. First meiotic division

    • 1.6.2.2. Meiosis II. Second meiotic division

    • 1.6.2.3. Result of meiosis

    • 1.6.3. Differences between mitosis and meiosis

    • 1.6.4. Biological importance of mitosis and meiosis

  • 1.7. Bibliography

• 2. Genetic information

  • 2.1. Nucleic acids

    • 2.1.1. DNA

    • 2.1.2. RNA

    • 2.1.3. Control fo protein synthesis

  • 2.2. DNA and molecular genetics

  • 2.3. Gene concept

  • 2.4. DNA replication

  • 2.5. Transcription from DNA to RNA

  • 2.6. Genetic code

  • 2.7. Translation of RNA to proteins

  • 2.8. Mutations. Relations evolution

  • 2.9. Biotechnology

  • 2.10. Genetic engineering: techniques and applications

    • 2.10.1. Cloning

    • 2.10.2. Human Genome Project

  • 2.11. Bioethics

  • 2.12. Bibliography

• 3. The biological inheritance

  • 3.1. The inheritance and transmission of characters

  • 3.2. Introduction and development of the Mendel´s Laws

    • 3.2.1. Mendel's first law

    • 3.2.2. Mendel's second law

    • 3.2.3. Mendel's third law

  • 3.3. Chromosomal basis of Mendel's Laws

    • 3.3.1. Exceptions to Mendel's laws

    • 3.3.2. Chromosomal theory of heredity

    • 3.3.3. Genetic concepts

    • 3.3.4. Types of inheritance

  • 3.4. Human genetics

    • 3.4.1. Inheritance of blood groups

    • 3.4.2. Sex inheritance

    • 3.4.3. Sex-linked inheritance

    • 3.4.4. Heritage influenced by sex

  • 3.5. Genetic problems solved

    • 3.5.1. Inheritance of a character (problems solved)

      • 3.5.1.1. Albinism (solved problems)

      • 3.5.1.2. Groups Rh (solved problems)

      • 3.5.1.3. Eye Color (solved problems)

        3.5.1.4. More inheritance problems of a caracter

        3.5.1.5. More inheritance problems of a caracter

        3.5.1.6. More inheritance problems or a character

        3.5.1.7. More inheritance problems or a character

    • 3.5.2. Inheritance of two characters (solved problems)

      • 3.5.2.1. More two-character genetic inheritance solved problems 2

      • 3.5.2.2. More two-character genetic inheritance solved problems 3

      • 3.5.2.3. More two-character genetic inheritance solved problems 4

      • 3.5.2.4. More two-character genetic inheritance solved problems 5

    • 3.5.3. Codominance and intermediate inheritance (solved problems)

      • 3.5.3.1. More codominance and intermediate inheritance problems 2

    • 3.5.4. Sex-linked inheritance (solved problems)

    • 3.5.4.1. Color blindness or daltonism (problems solved)

      • 3.5.4.1.1. More color blindness problems or daltonism

    • 3.5.4.2. Haemophilia (solved problems)

    • 3.5.4.3. Sex-linked inheritance (two characters)

    • 3.5.4.4. More sex-linked inheritance problems

    • 3.5.5. Heritage influenced by gender (solved problems)

    • 3.5.6. Multiple alleles (solved problems)

    • 3.5.6.1. AB0 Blood Groups (solved problems)

      • 3.5.6.1.1. More AB0 blood group problems solved 2

      • 3.5.6.1.2. More AB0 blood group problems solved 3

    • 3.5.7. Genealogical trees

      • 3.5.7.1. Family trees 2

      • 3.5.7.2. Family trees 3

  • 3.6. Bibliography

• 4. Origin and evolution of living beings

  • 4.1. Hypothesis about the origin of life on Earth

  • 4.2. Evolution of living beings

  • 4.3. Theories of evolution

    • 4.3.1. Lamarck

    • 4.3.2. Darwin and Wallace

    • 4.3.3. Neo-Darwinism

    • 4.3.4. Other evolutionary theories

  • 4.4. Evidences of evolution

    • 4.4.1. Anatomical evidence of evolution

    • 4.4.2. Embryological evidence of evolution

    • 4.4.3. Paleontological evidence of evolution

    • 4.4.4. Biogeographic evidence of evolution

    • 4.4.5. Biochemical evidence of evolution

  • 4.5. Mechanisms of evolution

    • 4.5.1. Genetic variability

    • 4.5.2. Natural selection

    • 4.5.3. Consequences of evolution

      • 4.5.3.1. Adaptation of organisms

      • 4.5.3.2. Speciation

      • 4.5.3.3. Species diversification

  • 4.6. Human evolution: the process of humanization

    • 4.6.1. Primates

    • 4.6.2. Hominids

    • 4.6.3. Humans

  • 4.7. Bibliography

• 5. The history of Earth

  • 5.1. The origin of the Earth

  • 5.2. Earth, a changing planet

  • 5.3. Geological time: historical ideas about the age of the Earth

  • 5.4. Dating Methods

    • 5.4.1. Relative dating

      • 5.4.1.1. Geological history exercises - relative dating

  • 5.4.2. Absolute dating

  • 5.5. Fossils

    • 5.5.1. Fossils in Aragon

  • 5.6. Geological history of Earth

  • 5.6.1. Precambrian

  • 5.6.2. Phanerozoic

    • 5.6.2.1. Paleozoic

    • 5.6.2.2. Mesozoic

    • 5.6.2.3. Cenozoic

  • 5.7. Bibliography

• 6. Structure and dynamics of the Earth

  • 6.1. Earth study methods

    • 6.1.1. Seismic discontinuities

  • 6.2. Structure and composition of the Earth

    • 6.2.1. Geochemical model

    • 6.2.2. Dynamic model

  • 6.3. Bibliography

• 7. Plate Tectonics

  • 7.1. From continental drift to plate tectonics

  • 7.1.1. Wegener continental drift

  • 7.2. Plate tectonics and its manifestations

  • 7.2.1. Lithospheric plates

  • 7.2.2. Ocean ridges

    • 7.2.2.1. Expansion of the ocean floor

  • 7.2.3. Oceanic trenches

  • 7.2.4. Transforming faults

  • 7.2.5. Formation of mountain ranges

  • 7.3. The Wilson cycle

  • 7.4. Rock deformation

    • 7.4.1. Folds

    • 7.4.2. Faults

    • 7.4.3. Diaclases or joints

    • 7.4.4. Mixed structures

  • 7.5. Bibliography

• 8. Ecosystems

  • 8.1. Ecosystem structure

    • 8.1.1. Types of ecosystems

      • 8.1.1.1. Aquatic ecosystems

      • 8.1.1.2. Terrestrial ecosystems

        • 8.1.1.2.1. Urban ecosystems

  • 8.2. Components of the ecosystem: community and biotope

    • 8.2.1. Biotope

    • 8.2.2. Biocenosis or community

  • 8.3. Habitat and ecological niche

  • 8.4. Limiting factors and adaptations

  • 8.5. Tolerance limit

  • 8.6. Trophic levels

  • 8.7. Trophic relationships: chains and networks

  • 8.8. Ecological pyramids

  • 8.9. Self-regulation ecosystem, population and community

    • 8.9.1. Intra and interspecific relationships

  • 8.10. Matter cycle and energy flow

  • 8.11. Biogeochemical cycles

    • 8.11.1. Carbon cycle

    • 8.11.2. Nitrogen cycle

    • 8.11.3. Phosphorus cycle

  • 8.12. Ecological successions

  • 8.13. Bibliography

• 9. Resources and environmental impacts

  • 9.1. Human activity and the environment

  • 9.2. Natural resources and their types

  • 9.3. Environmental impacts

    • 9.3.1. Air pollution

      • 9.3.1.1. Air pollutants

      • 9.3.1.2. Acid rain

      • 9.3.1.3. The smog

      • 9.3.1.4. Ozone layer hole

      • 9.3.1.5. Increased greenhouse effect

      • 9.3.1.6. Climate change

    • 9.3.2. Noise pollution

    • 9.3.3. Light pollution

    • 9.3.4. Water contamination

      • 9.3.4.1. Water pollutants

      • 9.3.4.2. Water eutrophication

      • 9.3.4.3. Aquifer reduction

  • 9.4. Soil

    • 9.4.1. Soil contamination

  • 9.5. Major environmental problems of Aragon

  • 9.6. Overpopulation and its consequences

  • 9.7. Waste and its management

  • 9.8. Bibliography and student work

• Biology 2nd Baccalaureate

  • 1. Bioelements and biomolecules. Water and mineral salts.
    • 1.1. Chemical bonds in biology.
      • 1.1.1. Intramolecular bonds.
        • 1.1.1.1. Covalent bond.
        • 1.1.1.2. Ionic bond.
      • 1.1.2. Intermolecular bonds.
        • 1.1.2.1. Var der Waals forces.
        • 1.1.2.2. Hydrogen bonds.
    • 1.2. The chemical basics of life: inorganic and organic components.
      • 1.2.1. Primary bioelements.
      • 1.2.2. Secondary bioelements.
      • 1.2.3. Trace elements.
    • 1.3. The immediate principles or biomolecules.
      • 1.3.1. Water.
        • 1.3.1.1. Chemical structure of water.
        • 1.3.1.2. Propierties and functions of water.
      • 1.3.2. Mineral salts.
        • 1.3.2.1. Functions of salts in solution.
        • 1.3.2.2. Colloidal solutions and dispersions.
        • 1.3.2.3. Propierties of colloidal dispersions.
        • 1.3.2.4. Diffusion, osmosis and dialysis.
          • 1.3.2.4.1. Diffusion.
          • 1.3.2.4.2. Osmosis.
          • 1.3.2.4.3. Dialysis.
    • 1.4. Bibliography.
  • 2. Glucides.
    • 2.1. Glucid concept.
    • 2.2. Classification of carbohydrates.
    • 2.3. Monosaccharides.
      • 2.3.1. Trios.
      • 2.3.2. Tetroses.
      • 2.3.3. Pentoses.
        • 2.3.3.1. Monosaccharide cyclization.
      • 2.3.4. Hexoses.
    • 2.4. The N-glucosidic and O-glucosidic bonds.
      • 2.4.1. Substances derived from monosaccharides.
    • 2.5. Disaccharides.
    • 2.6. Polysaccharides.
      • 2.6.1. Homopolysaccharides.
        • 2.6.1.1. Reserve homopolysaccharides.
        • 2.6.1.2. Structural homopolysaccharides.
      • 2.6.2. Heteropolysaccharides.
      • 2.6.3. Heterosides.
    • 2.7. General functions of glucides.
    • 2.8. Bibliography.
  • 3. Lipids.
    • 3.1. Lipid concept.
    • 3.2. Classification of lipids.
      • 3.2.1. Fatty acids.
        • 3.2.1.1. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
        • 3.2.1.2. Chemical propierties of fatty acids.
        • 3.2.1.3. Physical propierties of fatty acids.
        • 3.2.1.4. Fatty acid functions.
      • 3.2.2. Saponifiable lipids or with fatty acids.
        • 3.2.2.1. Simple lipids.
          • 3.2.2.1.1. Acylglycerides.
          • 3.2.2.1.2. Cerids.
        • 3.2.2.2. Complex lipids.
          • 3.2.2.2.1. Phospholipids.
          • 3.2.2.2.2. Glycolipids.
      • 3.2.3. Unsaponiable lipids or without fatty acids.
    • 3.3. Lipid functions.
    • 3.4. Bibliography.
  • 4. Proteins.
    • 4.1. Introduction to proteins.
    • 4.2. Amino acids.
      • 4.2.1. Classification of amino acids.
      • 4.2.2. Properties of amino acids.
    • 4.3. The peptide bond.
    • 4.4. Protein.
      • 4.4.1. Protein structure.
        • 4.4.1.1. Primary structure of proteins.
        • 4.4.1.2. Secondary structure os proteins.
        • 4.4.1.3. Tertiary structure of proteins.
        • 4.4.1.4. Quaternary structure of proteins.
      • 4.4.2. Protein properties.
      • 4.4.3. Classificacion of proteins.
        • 4.4.3.1. Holoproteins.
        • 4.4.3.2. Heteroproteins.
      • 4.4.4. Protein functions.
    • 4.5. Enzymes.
      • 4.5.1. Structure os enzymes.
      • 4.5.2. The active center of enzymes.
      • 4.5.3. General mechanism os enzime catalysis.
      • 4.5.4. Regulation of enzyme activity.
      • 4.5.5. Allosteric enzymes.
      • 4.5.6. Nomenclature and classification of enzymes.
    • 4.6. The vitamins.
      • 4.6.1. Fat-soluble vitamins.
      • 4.6.2. Water soluble vitamins.
    • 4.7. Bibliography.
  • 5. Nucleotides and nucleic acids.
    • 5.1. The chemical composition of nucleic acids.
      • 5.1.1. Components of nucleic acids.
      • 5.1.2. Concept, types and funcions of nucleic acids.
      • 5.1.3. Nucleosides.
      • 5.1.4. Nucleotides.
        • 5.1.4.1. Nucleotide functions.
      • 5.1.5. Nucleic acids.
    • 5.2. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
      • 5.2.1. DNA structure.
        • 5.2.1.1. Primary structure of DNA.
        • 5.2.1.2. Secondary structure of DNA.
        • 5.2.1.3. Tertiary structure of DNA.
          • 5.2.1.3.1. Tertiary structure of DNA in prokaryotes.
          • 5.2.1.3.2. Tertiary structure of DNA in eukariotes.
        • 5.2.1.4. Quaternary structure of DNA.
      • 5.2.2. DNA types.
      • 5.2.3. Genetic material: chromatin and chromosomes.
        • 5.2.3.1. Karyotype and karyogram.
    • 5.3. Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
      • 5.3.1. RNA types.
        • 5.3.1.1. Transfer RNA.
        • 5.3.1.2. Messenger RNA.
        • 5.3.1.3. Ribosomal RNA.
        • 5.3.1.4. Nucleolar RNA.
        • 5.3.1.5. Small nuclear RNA.
      • 5.3.2. Functions of ribonucleic acids.
    • 5.4. Bibliography.
  • 6. Cell morphology.
    • 6.1. Cell concept.
      • 6.1.1. Cell history.
      • 6.1.2. Cell theory.
    • 6.2. Levels of cellular organization.
      • 6.2.1. General characteristics of cells.
      • 6.2.2. Prokaryotic cells.
        • 6.2.2.1. Prokaryotic cell morphology.
        • 6.2.2.2. Structure of prokariotes.
        • 6.2.2.2.1. Bacterial capsule.
        • 6.2.2.2.2. Bacterial wall.
        • 6.2.2.2.3. Plasma membrane.
        • 6.2.2.2.4. Cytoplasm - Ribosomes - Inclusions.
        • 6.2.2.2.5. Bacterial DNA.
        • 6.2.2.2.6. Bacterial appendages.
      • 6.2.2.3. Bacteria physiology.
    • 6.2.3. Eukariotic cells.
      • 6.2.3.1. Animal and plant cell.
        • 6.2.3.1.1. Animal eukaryotic cell.
        • 6.2.3.1.2. Plant eukariotic cell.
      • 6.2.3.2. Cell evolution: endosymbiont theory.
    • 6.3. Size, shape and quantity.
    • 6.4. The plasma membrane.
    • 6.4.1. Chemical composition of the membrane.
    • 6.4.2. The structure of the membrane. The fluid mosaic model.
    • 6.4.3. Functions of the plasma membrane.
    • 6.4.4. Transport across the membrane.
      • 6.4.4.1. Small molecule transport.
      • 6.4.4.2. Macromolecule transport.
    • 6.4.5. Plasma membrane differentiations.
    • 6.5. The cell wall of plant cells.
      • 6.5.1. Chemical composition or the cell wall.
      • 6.5.2. Cell wall structure.
      • 6.5.3. Cell wall differentiations.
      • 6.5.4. Cell wall functions.
    • 6.6. Extracellular matrix or glucocalyx.
    • 6.7. Cytosol or hyaloplasm.
    • 6.8. The cytoskeleton.
      • 6.8.1. Microfilaments or actin filaments.
      • 6.8.2. Intermediate filaments.
      • 6.8.3. Microtubules.
    • 6.9. Cell membrane and organelle systems.
      • 6.9.1. Membrane systems.
        • 6.9.1.1. The endoplasmic reticulum.
        • 6.9.1.2. Golgi apparatus.
      • 6.9.2. Cell organelles.
        • 6.9.2.1. Lysosomes.
        • 6.9.2.2. Peroxisomes.
        • 6.9.2.3. Vacuoles.
        • 6.9.2.4. Mitochondria.
          • 6.9.2.4.1. Functions of the mitochondria.
        • 6.9.2.5. Plastids.
          • 6.9.2.5.1. Chloroplasts.
        • 6.9.2.6. Ribosomes.
        • 6.9.2.7. Centrosome.
        • 6.9.2.8. Cilia and flagella.
    • 6.10. Cell motility.
    • 6.11. The cell nucleus.
      • 6.11.1. Characteristics of the cell nucleus.
      • 6.11.2. The interphase nucleus.
      • 6.11.3. The mitotic nucleus or nucleus in division.
    • 6.12. Bibliography.
  • 7. Metabolism.
    • 7.1. Metabolism.
      • 7.1.1. Energetic aspects of cellular chemical reactions.
    • 7.2. Catabolism.
      • 7.2.1. Catabolism and obtaining energy.
      • 7.2.2. Carbohydrate catabolism.
        • 7.2.2.1. Glycolysis.
        • 7.2.2.2. Cellular respiration.
          • 7.2.2.2.1. Oxidative decarboxylation.
          • 7.2.2.2.2. Krebs cycle.
          • 7.2.2.2.3. Electron transport chain.
          • 7.2.2.2.4. Energy balance of cellular respiration.
        • 7.2.2.3. Fermentations.
          • 7.2.2.3.1. Alcoholic or ethyl fermentation.
          • 7.2.2.3.2. Lactic fermentacion.
          • 7.2.2.3.3. Other types of fermentations.
    • 7.3. Anabolism.
      • 7.3.1. Autotrophic anabolism.
      • 7.3.2. Photosynthesis.
        • 7.3.2.1. Photochemical or light phase.
          • 7.3.2.1.1. Photosystems.
          • 7.3.2.1.2. Photophosphorylation.
            • 7.3.2.1.2.1. Non cyclic photophosphorylation.
            • 7.3.2.1.2.2. Cyclic photophosphorylation.
        • 7.3.2.2. Biosynthetic or dark phase.
        • 7.3.2.3. Factors influencing photosynthesis.
        • 7.3.2.4. Products of photosynthesis.
      • 7.3.3. Chemosynthesis.
    • 7.4. Biblography.
  • 8. Cell reproduction.
    • 8.1. The cell cycle.
      • 8.1.1. Interphase.
      • 8.1.2. Cellular division.
    • 8.2. Cellular division.
      • 8.2.1. Mitosis.
        • 8.2.1.1. Prophase.
        • 8.2.1.2. Metaphase.
        • 8.2.1.3. Anaphase.
        • 8.2.1.4. Telophase.
        • 8.2.1.5. Cytokinesis.
        • 8.2.1.6. More on mitosis.
      • 8.2.2. Meiosis.
        • 8.2.2.1. Meiosis I.
        • 8.2.2.2. Meiosis II.
      • 8.2.3. Meiosis and sexual reproduction.
      • 8.2.4. Meiosis and life cycle.
      • 8.2.5. Biological importance of meiosis.
    • 8.3. Differences and similarities between mitosis and meiosis.
    • 8.4. Bibliography.
  • 9. Classical genetics.
    • 9.1. Genetics basics.
    • 9.2. Mendelian genetics.
      • 9.2.1. The method.
      • 9.2.2. Mendel´s Laws.
        • 9.2.2.1. Mendel´s first law or principle of uniformity in the first generation.
        • 9.2.2.2. Mendel´s second law or principle of segregation.
          • 9.2.2.2.1. Backcross and test crossover.
        • 9.2.2.3. Mendel´s third law or principle of independent combination.
    • 9.3. Gene interaction.
      • 9.3.1. Gene interaction between allelic genes.
      • 9.3.2. Gene interaction between non-allelic genes that influence for the same trait.
    • 9.4. Chromosomal thory of heredity.
    • 9.5. Ligation and recombination.
    • 9.6. Complex mendelism.
      • 9.6.1. Multiple allelism.
        • 9.6.1.1. Lethal genes.
      • 9.6.2. Pleiotropy.
      • 9.6.3. Expressiveness and genetic penetrance.
    • 9.7. Sex-linked inheritance.
      • 9.7.1. Y-linked inheritance.
      • 9.7.2. X-linked inheritance.
    • 9.8. Heredity influenced by sex.
    • 9.9. Bibliography.
  • 10. Molecular genetics.
    • 10.1. DNA as hereditary material.
    • 10.2. DNA replication.
      • 10.2.1. The need for DNA replication.
      • 10.2.2. First hypotheses about DNA duplication.
      • 10.2.3. Meselson and Stahl experiment.
      • 10.2.4. The sense of growth of the new strands.
      • 10.2.5. Mechanism of DNA replication.
        • 10.2.5.1. Replication in prokaryotes.
        • 10.2.5.2. Replication in eukayotes.
      • 10.2.6. Error correction.
      • 10.2.7. Enzymes involved in replication.
    • 10.3. Gene concept.
    • 10.4. "One gene-one enzyme" theory.
    • 10.5. Transcription.
      • 10.5.1. Mechanism of transcription.
        • 10.5.1.1. Transcripcion in prokariotes.
        • 10.5.1.2. Eukaruotic transcription.
    • 10.6. Translation or protein biosynthesis.
      • 10.6.1. The genetic code.
      • 10.6.2. Mechanism or translation of RNA o proteins.
        • 10.6.2.1. Translation in eukaryotes.
    • 10.7. Regulation of gene expression.
    • 10.8. Bibliography.
  • 11. Genetics and evolution.
    • 11.1. Mutations.
    • 11.2. Types of mutations.
      • 11.2.1. Gene or point mutation.
      • 11.2.2. Chromosomal or structural mutation.
      • 11.2.3. Mutation at the genomic level.
    • 11.3. Causes of mutations.
    • 11.4. Evolutionary implications of mutations.
    • 11.5. Metabolic implications of mutations.
    • 11.6. Bibliography.
  • 12. Microbiology and biotechnology.
    • 12.1. Microbiology.
    • 12.2. Viruses.
      • 12.2.1. Viral morphology.
      • 12.2.2. Viral physiology.
        • 12.2.2.1. Lytic cycle.
        • 12.2.2.2. Lysogenic cycle.
        • 12.2.2.3. Cycles of viruses of special interest.
          • 12.2.2.3.1. Flu virus life cycle.
          • 12.2.2.3.2. Life cycle of the AIDS virus.
    • 12.3. Other acellular forms.
      • 12.3.1. Viroids.
      • 12.3.2. Prions.
    • 12.4. Biotechnology.
    • 12.5. Bibliography.
  • 13. Inmunology.
    • 13.1. Infection concept.
    • 13.2. Defense mechanisms against infections.
      • 13.2.1. Nospecific mechanisms.
        • 13.2.1.1. Primary barriers:external defenses.
        • 13.2.1.2. Secondary barriers: internal defenses.
      • 13.2.2. Specific mechanisms.
    • 13.3. Immunity and immune system.
      • 13.3.1. Components of the immune system.
      • 13.3.2. Concept and nature of antigens.
    • 13.4. The immune response.
      • 13.4.1. Humoral immune response: the antibodies.
        • 13.4.1.1. Antibody-producing cells: B lymphocytes.
        • 13.4.1.2. Antibodies.
          • 13.4.1.2.1. Types of antibodies.
          • 13.4.1.2.2. Antigen-antibody reaction.
        • 13.4.1.3. Immune memory: primary and secondary responses.
      • 13.4.2. Cellular immune response: T lymphocytes.
    • 13.5. Types of immunity.
      • 13.5.1. Natural immunity.
      • 13.5.2. Artificial immuntity
    • 13.6. Immune system disorders.
      • 13.6.1. Autoimmunity.
      • 13.6.2. Hypersensitivity.
      • 13.6.3. Immunodeficienty.
      • 13.6.4. Transplants and the phenomenon of rejections.
    • 13.7. Bibliography.

Currículos de Biología y Geología

Aviso legal

Descargas

Contacto

Sorpresas en exámenes

Índice global